Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)

Biographical Context & Historical Significance

Birth & Death: Born in Malmesbury, England (1588); died (1679) at age 91. Lived through English Civil War, regicide, and Commonwealth period.

Career:

Tutor to nobility and royalty
Fled to France during Civil War to avoid persecution
Returned after Restoration of Charles II
Prolific writer despite political controversy

Key Works:

Leviathan (1651): Masterwork of political philosophy; systematic theory of state and sovereignty
De Cive (1642): Earlier version of political theory
De Corpore: Materialist metaphysics

Influence: Founder of social contract theory; materialist and nominalist philosopher; influenced liberal political thought; controversial for seeming to endorse absolutism; realist about human nature.

Core Philosophical Framework

Materialism and Mechanistic Universe

Hobbes' worldview:

Only physical bodies exist; immaterial substances (souls, spirits) do not
All phenomena can be explained through matter in motion
Causation is mechanical; everything follows from physical laws
Psychology and human behavior are mechanical processes

Implication for politics: Human nature is not spiritual or divine but mechanical and governed by self-interest and fear.

Human Nature: Self-Interest and the Passion for Power

Hobbes' view of human nature:

Humans are fundamentally selfish and motivated by self-interest
All humans seek power and dominion over others
Fear of death is the strongest human passion
Reason is instrumental (means to achieve desires), not moral guide
Compassion and generosity exist but are weak compared to self-interest

The "war of all against all" (bellum omnium contra omnes):

In the state of nature, every person has war against every other person
Not necessarily constant fighting, but constant state of conflict and danger
"Life in the state of nature is solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short"

The State of Nature

Definition and Characteristics

What is the state of nature: A hypothetical condition of humanity before government and law. Hobbes' version differs markedly from later thinkers (especially Locke).

Characteristics of Hobbes' state of nature:

No common power to enforce rules: No sovereign authority to enforce morality or law
No property or mine/thine distinction: Without law, no stable property rights
No injustice, but no justice either: Concepts of right and wrong don't apply without law
Constant competition: Everyone competes with everyone for scarce resources
Fear and suspicion: Uncertainty about others' intentions
War of all against all: Constant state of conflict, violence, and danger
Equality of power: Despite differences in strength, all are roughly equal (the weak can kill the strong)

Why the state of nature is war:

Competition: All seek same resources; scarcity creates conflict
Diffidence: Fear and distrust of others' intentions
Glory: Human desire for reputation, honor, dominance

Life in the State of Nature

Hobbes' description:

Constant fear of violent death
No laws, no right and wrong
No arts or sciences (require peace and stability)
No culture or civilization
No lasting society or cooperation
No time for anything but survival and conflict

No property because:

Property requires law to define and protect ownership
In state of nature, "might makes right"
What one person claims, another can take by force

The Laws of Nature and Reason

Laws of Nature (Not Divine, But Rational)

Definition: Rules of reason that guide humans toward peace and self-preservation.

First Law of Nature: Seek peace if possible; if peace is impossible, use all available means for self-preservation and victory.

Second Law of Nature: Covenant to establish rules if others do the same (foundation of social contract).

Third Law of Nature: Keep covenants and agreements; honesty is necessary for peace.

Other laws: Include gratitude, pity, forgiveness, and mutual respect.

Nature of these laws: They're rules of reason, not divine commandments. Hobbes denies these are divinely given; they're rational calculations about survival and self-interest.

Limitation: These laws of nature cannot be followed in the state of nature because there's no enforcer. They only become binding when there's a sovereign to enforce them.

Why the Sovereign is Necessary

The problem: Humans cannot trust each other to keep agreements without enforcement. Self-interest makes everyone cheat.