Biographical Context & Historical Significance
Birth & Death: Born in Somerset, England (1632); died (1704) at age 71. Lived during English Civil War, Commonwealth, Restoration, and Glorious Revolution.
Career:
- Physician, philosopher, and political theorist
- Lived in exile in Holland during Restoration (for political reasons)
- Returned after Glorious Revolution of 1688
- Prolific writer on politics, epistemology, and toleration
Key Works:
- Second Treatise of Government (1689): Foundational for liberal political theory
- First Treatise of Government: Refutation of divine right theory
- An Essay Concerning Human Understanding: Epistemology (empiricism)
- Letter Concerning Toleration: Religious toleration
- Some Thoughts Concerning Education: Educational theory
Influence: Founder of modern liberalism; influenced American and French revolutions; theory of natural rights; concept of limited government; toleration; empiricism.
Core Philosophical Framework
Empiricism: Knowledge from Experience
Locke's epistemology (briefly):
- Humans are born as "blank slate" (tabula rasa) with no innate ideas
- All knowledge comes from sensory experience and reflection
- Reason works on sense data to form ideas
- This empiricism shapes his political thought (laws based on observable human nature and experience)
The State of Nature
A Peaceful, Orderly Condition (vs. Hobbes)
Locke's state of nature differs fundamentally from Hobbes:
Characteristics:
- Natural freedom: Each person has freedom to act according to their will
- Equality: No natural superiority of anyone over anyone else
- Natural law: Exists even without government; known by reason
- Peace possible: Humans can coexist reasonably peacefully
- Property rights: People can acquire property through labor
- Not a war: Unlike Hobbes, Locke's state of nature is not constant warfare
Natural Rights and Natural Law
Natural Law (accessible to reason):
- The Law of Nature commands: Do not harm others in life, liberty, or property
- Grounded in God but knowable by reason
- Applies to all humans equally
- Creates natural rights and natural duties
Natural Rights:
- Life: Right to preserve one's life
- Liberty: Freedom to act within bounds of natural law
- Property: Right to acquire and possess property through labor
The Right to Property:
- Labor theory of property: By mixing labor with natural resources, one acquires property
- Example: Gathering acorns from the ground; picking apples from trees; plowing land
- Limits: One can acquire only what one can use; wasting natural resources is wrong
- Foundation: Property rights preexist government; government exists to protect them
The Problem with the State of Nature
Despite being peaceful, the state of nature has drawbacks that lead to government:
Inconveniences:
- Lack of fixed, known law: What the natural law requires is sometimes unclear
- Lack of impartial judge: Disputes arise; parties are biased judges of their own cases
- Lack of enforcement power: No authority to enforce the natural law; individuals cannot be trusted